Welcome to my blog! 

Follow along as I take you on a journey exploring the waters of the Shenandoah watershed.

Dendrology

As I walk through the Shenandoah watershed, I notice that the trees near the stream and riparian areas differ from those found near the peaks and mid-slopes. Each area of the watershed serves its own ecological function, and the tree species vary accordingly. I will later discuss each of these species in more detail, but for now, I want to highlight the importance of their locations within the watershed and identify which species you’re likely to encounter.

The hillsides of the watershed are covered in thick forests. The upper slopes and ridgetops of the mountains are dominated by several varieties of oaks and white pine trees. These dense forests stand tall at higher elevations, shielding the lower slopes and valleys from strong storms and winds. The oaks and pines have strong, spreading root systems that anchor the ridge tops, helping to reduce erosion and maintain the stability of the upper slopes.

The mid-slopes feature a more diverse mix of trees, including ash, birch and hickories. These mixed hardwood forests play a vital role in stabilizing the steep terrain, reducing the risk of erosion and landslides. This, in turn, decreases sediment runoff and helps protect water quality downstream. The mid-slope forests contain trees of varying sizes and downed trees, which provide essential corridors and habitats for plants and wildlife throughout the watershed. There are also dead and decaying trees and leaf litter which help build the soil fertility and support decomposers, which are essential for biodiversity and the overall health of the forest. These mid-slope forests support both the physical stability and the biodiversity of the region.

On the lower slopes, trees such as tulip poplar and red maple are common, along with understory species like pawpaw and mountain laurel. This diversity thrives in the increased moisture of the lower elevations, where it helps filter nutrients and pollutants from runoff before they reach the waterways. These functions are crucial for maintaining water quality for aquatic life and downstream communities. The dense root systems also stabilize stream banks, reducing erosion and acting as natural buffers during floods.

In the floodplain and riparian zones, species such as cottonwood and American sycamore are commonly found. These floodplain forests help filter out sediments, nutrients, and pollutants before they enter rivers and streams, ensuring cleaner water for aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, they absorb excess water during floods, reducing flood severity. Their dense roots and understory vegetation stabilize the soil and stream banks, minimizing erosion and sediment flow into waterways.

The image below shows the varying slopes found throughout a watershed.

Credit: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/floodplain-forest

References:

Flathead Watershed Council. (n.d.). Floodplains. http://www.flatheadwatershed.org/watershed/floodplains.shtml

National Park Service. (2024). Trees and shrubs. Shenandoah National Park. https://www.nps.gov/shen/learn/nature/treesandshrubs.htm

Mapping and Delineating the Shenandoah Watershed

The Shenandoah watershed gathers water from numerous streams to form the Shenandoah River. Beginning at the convergence of the North Fork and South Fork rivers near Front Royal, VA, the river flows north to join the Potomac River at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. The Potomac River then continues into the Chesapeake Bay near Washington, D.C., before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean (Chesapeake Network, n.d.). 

Photo credit: Williamsburg Regional Library, 2012

I am going to focus specifically on one section of the Shenandoah watershed, the South Fork Shenandoah River. The South Fork has an overall area of about 1,650 square miles and flows south to north for 97 miles (VDWR, n.d.). It runs between the Blue Ridge Mountains to the east and the Massanutten Mountains to the west. Runoff from these mountains contributes to the river’s volume and creates scenic vistas along its path (Williamsburg Regional Library, 2012). 

The South Fork is formed by two main tributaries, the North and South Rivers, which converge at Port Republic, VA, forming the South Fork of the Shenandoah River.  Along its course, additional tributaries, including Hawksbill Creek, Mill Creek, and Gooney Creek, increase its flow (Page County, 2011). The South Fork continues north until it meets the North Fork at Front Royal, where they join to form the main stem of the Shenandoah River (Chesapeake Network, n.d.).

The headwaters at Port Republic begin at about 1000 feet above sea level, while the Shenandoah rivers mouth at Harpers Ferry is 246 feet. This gradual descent gives the South Fork its characteristic slow-moving, tranquil waters, with long stretches of flatwater and occasional small rapids (NPS, 2021). Its aquatic vegetation and riparian streambanks provide important wildlife habitat, supporting species such as bald eagles and ospreys. 

Photo credit: Brian Sari

The South Fork passes through Rockingham, Page, and Warren counties, as well as communities including Elkton, Shenandoah, and Luray, before reaching Front Royal (VDWR, n.d.). Known for its recreational opportunities, the river is popular for canoeing, kayaking, and fishing. Although most of the surrounding land is privately owned, more than 20 public access points are available. Portions of the river also border the George Washington National Forest to the west and Shenandoah State Park to the east, making the South Fork River a prime destination for outdoor recreation and mountain scenery (NPS, 2021).

References:

Chesapeake Network. (n.d.). Shenandoah River. Potomac Riverkeeper Network. https://www.potomacriver.org/focus-areas/aquatic-life/largest-potomac-tributaries/shenandoah/

Page County Water Quality Advisory Committee. (2011). Water management plan for the North and South Forks of the Shenandoah River. http://pagewaterquality.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/WMP-PNC-Article-8-RWA-4.pdf

National Park Service (NPS). (2021). Visit the South Fork of the Shenandoah River. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/visit-the-south-fork-of-the-shenandoah-river.htm

Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources (VDWR). (n.d.). Shenandoah River—South Fork. https://dwr.virginia.gov/waterbody/shenandoah-river-south-fork/

Williamsburg Regional Library. (2012). Water gaps worth a voyage across the Atlantic. William & Mary Blogs. https://cmbailey.pages.wm.edu/2012/10/26/water-gaps-worth-a-voyage-across-the-atlantic/

Stream Corridor Restoration

I have prepared a slide presentation highlighting stream corridor restoration in the Shenandoah watershed, covering restoration plans, identifying problems, project goals, and implementation strategies.

Click on the image below to begin the slideshow, or click here: Shenandoah watershed stream corridor restoration slideshow

Flood and Drought Data

 Introduction

Between 1950 and 2010, the Shenandoah watershed experienced numerous droughts and floods, some so severe they remain historic record events. More than 2,000 flash floods and 55 droughts have left lasting impacts in the Shenandoah valley. The watershed’s topography, combined with intensive agricultural use, increases its vulnerability to both flash flooding and drought (Smith Creek Partnership, 2024).

Flooding in the region often damages crops, waterlogs soils, delays harvesting, and contributes to algal blooms from nutrient runoff (Barber et al., 2021). Conversely, during droughts, the ground becomes compacted and less permeable, causing rainwater to run off instead of infiltrating into the soil. With up to 80% of Shenandoah county residents relying on wells as their primary source of water, prolonged drought conditions place both households and farms at significant risk (Barber et al., 2021). 

The image below illustrates areas within the Shenandoah watershed that are prone to flooding, highlighting urban land use in red, agricultural areas in dark gray, water in blue, and regions with low flood risk in light gray.

Sources: © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community

Major Flood Events

1942 Flood

In October 1942, four days of torrential rain from a tropical storm system caused catastrophic flooding in the Shenandoah River. While water levels above 15 feet are considered dangerous, the river crested at over 41 feet, being the worst flood in Virginia’s history (Glen Allen Weather, n.d.; Urbanowicz, 2023).

Photo credit: Urbanowicz, 2023

The saturated watershed produced widespread flooding of valleys, creeks, and rivers, leading to devastating agricultural losses of livestock, crops, and businesses. Mudslides and infrastructure destruction caused severe transportation and communication interruptions and nfortunately, more than 1,300 people were left homeless (Glen Allen Weather, n.d.; Urbanowicz, 2023).

Photos: https://www.facebook.com/groups/252703744747522/posts/9561781760506294

1985 Flood

In November 1985, the remnants of a hurricane brought one of the most destructive floods across Virginia, West Virginia and Maryland. Heavy rainfall lingered for several days, with some areas receiving upwards of 20 inches of rain. The flooding was catastrophic, leaving over 4,000 homes and 350 farms damaged (National Weather Service, n.d.). Most of the roads were destroyed in Rockingham County, the railroad bridge in Elkton washed out, and Augusta County suffered more than $8 million in infrastructure damage. Furthermore, the historic town of Harpers Ferry was inundated and left covered in mud as the river crested near 30 feet (National Park Service, 2015).

Fourteen flood gauge stations across the Shenandoah River basin recorded unprecedented levels, with one county reaching nearly five times its previous record (National Park Service, 2015). Overall in Virginia, the disaster caused $750 million in damages and caused 62 deaths.The scale of destruction required assistance from FEMA and the U.S. Army in the recovery efforts. Many residents and businesses never fully recovered, leading to outmigration in several communities. This flood remains one of the costliest in Virginia’s history and helped shape the region’s hydrological monitoring and emergency response systems (National Weather Service, n.d.).

Photo credit: Folly Mills Antiques, n.d. ebay.com

1996 Flood

In September 1996, another major flood struck the Shenandoah watershed. More than 10,000 people were evacuated as floodwaters and landslides destroyed homes, buildings, and infrastructure, causing tens of millions of dollars in damages (National Weather Service, 1996).

The South Fork Shenandoah River crested at near-record levels, at 26.95 feet at Luray and 37 feet at Front Royal, more than 22 feet above flood stage (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). The scale of destruction surpassed the 1942 and 1985 floods, forcing prolonged closures of facilities and highlighting the region’s ongoing vulnerability to repeated high-water disasters. The effects of this flood helped improve regional flood preparedness, forecasting, and watershed management (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001).

Photo credit: Harpers Ferry Park Association, 2018

 

Major Drought Events

1930 Drought: Most Devastating

In 1930, the Shenandoah watershed experienced one of the most severe droughts on record, serving as a benchmark for drought intensity with measurements dating back to 1895 (Virginia Places, n.d.). During the summer of 1930, the drought peaked with extreme heat and continued dry conditions. Many areas of the watershed endured weeks of temperatures over 100 degrees, and rainfall was almost nonexistent, receiving as little as 10% of normal precipitation in the region (Barber, Vander Schaaf, & Hovland, 2021).

Water became extremely scarce as both municipal water systems and private wells ran dry. Farms and agricultural fields suffered heavily, experiencing crop failures, livestock losses, and threats to wildlife, while trees in forests dried out (Virginia Places, n.d.). This drought was a costly disaster; with record-breaking heat, low precipitation, and widespread water shortages. It remains a historic reference for severe drought impacts and set the standard for water management and drought preparedness in the region (Barber, et. all, 2021).

 
Photo credit: Circle of Blue, 2014

1962–1967 Drought: Driest on Record

A 60-month span between 1962 and 1967 marked the driest period on record for the Shenandoah watershed, creating significant challenges for agriculture, water supplies, and community life. Crops were destroyed, livestock suffered, and streams dried up, affecting all living things in the region (Waterford Virginia Community Association, n.d.). As wells ran dry, residents sought alternative water sources. Some drilled new wells and rationed water, while others traveled long distances to collect water from other communities (Central Shenandoah Planning District Commission, 2011).

The drought prompted renewed attention to water management strategies, including conservation practices, enhanced storage systems, and support for agricultural communities during extended dry periods. Its severity led to improved monitoring and more effective local response measures (Central Shenandoah Planning District Commission, 2011). Overall, the 1962–1967 drought is notable for its duration, broad geographic impact, and the extensive disruptions it caused, particularly for rural and agricultural communities (Barber, Vander Schaaf, & Hovland, 2021).

 
Photo credit: Carleton College SERC

1997–2002 Drought: Most Prolonged

Between 1997 and 2002, the Shenandoah watershed experienced a prolonged drought characterized by below-average rainfall and record-low stream flows (Waterford Virginia Community Association, n.d.). The persistent dryness affected wells and strained water supplies for both residents and farmers. Reduced grass and crop growth forced farmers to sell livestock and abandon fields. To make matters worse, July 1999 was the hottest month ever recorded in the Shenandoah Valley. Although a passing hurricane that year brought temporary relief, the region remained in a drought conditions for several more years (Barber, Vander Schaaf, & Hovland, 2021).

The severity and duration of this drought revealed vulnerabilities in regional water supply systems, prompting policy reforms to improve drought resilience. The Virginia General Assembly developed future water supply plans, and in 2003, the Virginia Drought Assessment and Response Plan (VDARP) was established. Communities also collaborated to increase reservoir capacity to better mitigate future droughts (Waterford Virginia Community Association, n.d.).

Video credit: Urbanowicz, A. (2023). Historic local droughts [Video]. WHSV. https://www.whsv.com/2023/08/23/historic-local-droughts/

 

References

Barber, C., Vander Schaaf, S., & Hovland, M. (2021, December 13). Shenandoah County: Flood and drought adaptation strategies (Shenandoah County, VA). https://www.shenandoahcountyva.gov/DocumentCenter/View/442/Shenandoah-County---Flood-And-Drought-Adaptation-Strategies-PDF

Central Shenandoah Planning District Commission. (2011). Upper Shenandoah River Basin drought preparedness and response plan. https://www.harrisonburgva.gov/sites/default/files/water/Managment%20Strategies/Upper%20Shenandoah%20River%20Basin%20Drought%20Preparedness%206.2012.pdf

Glen Allen Weather. (n.d.). Flood events of 1942. https://www.glenallenweather.com/upload/Floods/1942-October15.pdf

National Park Service. (2015, April 10). Memorable floods at Harpers Ferry. https://www.nps.gov/hafe/learn/historyculture/memorable-floods-at-harpers-ferry.htm

National Weather Service, Baltimore/Washington. (n.d.). November 1985 flood history. NOAA. https://www.weather.gov/lwx/Nov1985Flood

National Weather Service. (1996). NWS LWX storm data for September 1996 [PDF]. NOAA. https://www.weather.gov/media/lwx/stormdata/1996/storm0996.pdf

Smith Creek Partnership. (2024, June). Smith Creek fact sheet. Smith Creek Watershed. https://smithcreekwatershed.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Smith-Creek-Fact-Sheet.pdf

U.S. Geological Survey. (2001, May 23). Daily update on Hurricane Fran’s effect on Virginia’s rivers. https://va.water.usgs.gov/GLOBAL/fran96.html

Urbanowicz, A. (2023). Flood of 1942 left rivers at new records and widespread flooding after tropical remnants. WHSV. https://www.whsv.com/2023/10/17/flood-1942-left-rivers-new-records-widespread-flooding-after-tropical-remnants/

Virginia Places. (n.d.). Rain and drought in Virginia. https://www.virginiaplaces.org/climate/drought.html

Waterford Virginia Community Association. (n.d.). History of regional droughts. https://www.waterfordva-wca.org/nature-garden/drought-history.htm

Watershed Organization Research

I explored the work of the American Rivers organization and created a video based on my findings. You can watch the video by clicking the image below or by clicking here: American Rivers Organization

Watershed Threats and Challenges

The image below is a 2 page PDF. Please scroll down on the image to see page 2.

REFERENCES:

Appalachian State University Libraries. (2012). Conservation efforts and environmental struggles of Shenandoah National Park. Special Collections Research Center. https://collections.library.appstate.edu/research-aids/conservation-efforts-and-environmental-struggles-shenandoah-national-park 

Potomac Riverkeeper Network. (2021). Atlantic Coast pipeline threatens Shenandoah River campaign. https://www.potomacriverkeepernetwork.org/atlantic-coast-pipeline-threatens-shenandoah-river-campaign/ 

National Park Service. (2024). Park air profiles – Shenandoah National Park. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/articles/airprofiles-shen.htm 

Rice, K. C., Deviney, F. A., Hornberger, G. M., & Webb, J. R. (2006). Predicting the vulnerability of streams to episodic acidification and potential effects on aquatic biota in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia (U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5259). U.S. Department of the Interior. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/sir20055259 

KUNM. (2024). Why don’t we just fix the Colorado River crisis by piping in water from the East? KUNM – Local News. https://www.kunm.org/local-news/2024-10-06/why-dont-we-just-fix-the-colorado-river-crisis-by-piping-in-water-from-the-east

Watershed Monitoring Equipment Research

I have prepared a slide presentation on watershed monitoring equipment. In this presentation, I highlight an innovative technology that uses drones to monitor water quality.

Click on the image below to begin the slideshow, or click here: Watershed Equipment Research

Invasive Plant Research

 

Japanese Stiltgrass: An Invasive Threat to the Shenandoah Watershed

Common name: Japanese Stiltgrass
Scientific name: Microstegium vimineum

Native to East and Southeast Asia, Japanese Stiltgrass was introduced to the United States and first documented in Tennessee in 1918. It has since spread across more than 24 eastern U.S. states. Its dense, mat-like growth reduces biodiversity and changes habitat structure, negatively impacting forests, timber resources, scenic areas, and agricultural lands. (Fryer, 2018; USDA Forest Service, 2010; Penn State Extension, 2020).

IDENTIFICATION

Japanese Stiltgrass is a fast-growing annual grass that can spread both along the ground and upright, depending on its environment. Its thin, bamboo-like stems can reach up to 3.5 feet tall or sprawl long distances. The leaves are short, lance-shaped, and distinguished by a shiny, silvery midrib of fine hairs on the upper surface, while the lower surfaces have soft hairs. Japanese Stiltgrass blooms from late summer to fall, producing many small flowers (spikelets) that can self-fertilize. After frost, the green foliage fades to a light tan color and the stems persist through winter, remaining visible during the dormant season (Fryer, 2018; NC State Extension, n.d.; Native Plant Trust, 2024).

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org.

HABITATS

Japanese Stiltgrass thrives in a wide range of environments, including shaded, moist, and disturbed areas such as floodplain forests, wetlands, upland woods, forest and stream edges, roadsides, and gardens. Its adaptability to both low and high light and mild frost conditions allows it to colonize areas rapidly. This grass often takes hold in areas disturbed by natural or human activities, such as logging, construction, flooding, or foot traffic, and once established, it quickly spreads into nearby, less disturbed habitats (NC State Extension, n.d.; Native Plant Trust, 2024).

SIMILAR SPECIES

Japanese Stiltgrass is easily confused with native grasses like Whitegrass (also known as Cutgrass) but there are several key differences between them. Whitegrass is a perennial with longer, narrower leaves and a less noticeable midvein, while Stiltgrass is an annual with broader leaves marked by a shiny midrib. Another way to tell them apart is by their roots, Japanese Stiltgrass has a weak, shallow root system and can be pulled up easily, whereas Whitegrass forms strong underground rhizomes that help it return year after year (Native Plant Trust, 2024; Penn State Extension, 2020).

https://katymorikawa.com/floyd-native-plants-2024/

INVASIVE CHARACTERISTICS / ADVANTAGES

Japanese Stiltgrass colonizes disturbed streambanks and riparian areas where flooding or erosion have exposed bare soil (Fryer, 2018; Pennsylvania Sea Grant, 2025). In this environment, Stiltgrass crowds and displaces native plants and young trees that are critical for stabilizing streambanks and natural recovery processes (Fryer, 2018; Pennsylvania Sea Grant, 2025; GrowIt BuildIT, 2024). Its dense mat growth prevents both woody and herbaceous native species from establishing and regenerating, resulting in a decline of plant diversity and the loss of long-term streambank structure and ecosystem function (Fryer, 2018; GrowIt BuildIT, 2024).

The presence of Japanese Stiltgrass also alters soil chemistry by raising soil pH and modifying nutrient cycling rates (Fryer, 2018; Pennsylvania Sea Grant, 2025). These changes inhibit native seed germination and alter forest and streambank composition, leading to reductions in native plant regeneration (Fryer, 2018). By rapidly blanketing the ground, shifting soil conditions, and outcompeting native vegetation, Japanese Stiltgrass destabilizes forest regeneration and streambank ecosystems throughout the Shenandoah watershed (Fryer, 2018; Shoemaker et al., 2009).

REMOVAL / REMEDIATION STRATEGIES

Effective management of Japanese Stiltgrass includes hand-pulling smaller areas before it begins to seed, as the roots are shallow and the plants are easy to remove. Mowing is also effective when done before seed production, as mowing after the seeds mature can facilitate its spread. If the plants have already produced seeds, it is recommended to bag the plants after removing them to prevent seed dispersal. Applying herbicide can also be useful for larger infestations, and after removal, replanting native vegetation can help prevent regrowth. It’s also important to prevent soil disturbance and clean the equipment to minimize its reinfestation (NC State Extension, n.d.; Penn State Extension, 2020).

https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/JapaneseStiltGrass

Japanese stiltgrass poses a significant threat to the ecological health of the Shenandoah Watershed by outcompeting native plants and altering habitat structure. Effective management and ongoing monitoring are essential to limit its spread and protect biodiversity. By understanding its impacts and implementing control strategies, stakeholders can help preserve the integrity of this vital ecosystem for future generations.

---

References

Fryer, J. L. (2018). Ecological risk screening summary: Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum). U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. https://www.fws.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Ecological-Risk-Screening-Summary-Japanese-Stiltgrass.pdf

GrowIt BuildIT. (2024, December 21). A beginner’s guide to Japanese stiltgrass. https://growitbuildit.com/japanese-stiltgrass-microstegium-vimineum/

NC State Extension. (n.d.). Microstegium vimineum (Asian stiltgrass, Chinese packing grass).https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/microstegium-vimineum/

Native Plant Trust. (2024). Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stiltgrass). Go Botany. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/microstegium/vimineum/

Penn State Extension. (2020, July 15). Japanese stiltgrass. https://extension.psu.edu/japanese-stiltgrass/

Pennsylvania Sea Grant. (2025, October 16). Japanese stiltgrass fact sheet. https://seagrant.psu.edu/resources/resource-item/japanese-stiltgrass-fact-sheet/

Shoemaker, D., et al. (2009). Diversity declines in Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stiltgrass). Biological Conservation, 142(7), 1523–1532. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320709000408

USDA Forest Service. (2010, December 31). Microstegium vimineum. USDA Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/graminoid/micvim/all.html

 

Flood Plain Maps and Alluvial Soils

Floodplain Management, Soil Characteristics, and Land Use in Shenandoah, Page County, VA

Floodplains are landscape features that absorb rainfall, recharge groundwater, and reduce downstream flooding. The 1% Annual Chance Floodplain (formerly the “100-Year Floodplain”) is federally recognized as an area with significant flood hazard where development should be limited or avoided. Unregulated construction in these zones can disrupt natural drainage patterns, increase stormwater runoff, and elevate flood risk (FEMA, 2024).

To reduce damage and maintain ecosystem function, a riparian buffer zone of at least 50 feet is recommended along streams and rivers (Shenandoah County Natural Resources, 2023). Development is typically prohibited within these designated floodways, while low impact uses like agriculture and recreation are generally permitted.

This analysis focuses on a smaller section of the Shenandoah watershed, the Town of Shenandoah in Page County, Virginia, located between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Shenandoah Valley, with elevations ranging from approximately 417 to 4,000 feet above sea level (USGS Elevation Data).

 

FEMA Floodplain Mapping

Figure 1. FEMA Floodplain Map of the Town of Shenandoah, Page County, VA

 

The FEMA Flood Map indicates that most of the Town of Shenandoah lies outside the high-risk Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHA). However, several structures and infrastructure near the South Fork Shenandoah River fall within the Zone AE floodplain, exposing them to periodic flooding. These include riverside homes, farm buildings, roads, bridges, and railroad tracks.

Most of the surrounding land is used for agriculture, which is an appropriate use of the land near floodplain zones because it allows the floodwaters to spread with minimal long term damage. Nearby towns such as Front Royal (figure 2) face similar floodplain constraints, where dense urban development increases the vulnerability of flooding, even when they’re situated just outside the mapped SFHA’s (FEMA Flood Map, 2024).

Figure 2. FEMA Floodplain Map of Front Royal, VA

 

Floodplain management includes restrictions on new construction within the floodways and have incentives including property elevation or floodproofing (Virginia DCR Floodplain Management, 2025). Despite these regulations, continued population growth near the river poses ongoing risks, especially with projected climate change that can increase river levels.

 

Alluvial and Local Soil Characteristics

Figure 3. USDA Web Soil Survey Map of the Town of Shenandoah and Surrounding Areas

 

Alluvial soils are formed through the deposition of sediment carried by rivers and streams. These soils are typically nutrient-rich, deep, and support both natural vegetation and agriculture (Soil Science Society of America, 2020).

Within the Town of Shenandoah, however, the USDA Web Soil Survey identifies areas dominated by Weikert–Berks channery silt loams (50D), characterized by 15–35% slopes. This refers to mountainous terrain with thin soils developed on slopes ranging within a 15% to 35% incline. These soils are shallow, rocky, and well-drained, with limited water-holding capacity. They are not ideal for farmland and are more suited for forested or low density residential use due to erosion risks and low fertility (USDA NRCS Soil Survey, 2025).

Figure 4. Weikert–Berks channery silt loam soil

 

Just outside of the Town of Shenandoah, in Page County, where agriculture fields are abundant, the soil is different. The soil type is Monongahela loam with 2–7% slopes, a deep, moderately well drained silt loam derived from sedimentary rock. This soil type is nutrient-rich and ideal for crops and pasture, making it highly suitable for agriculture (USDA Web Soil Survey, 2025). These flatter, alluvial areas lie just beyond the primary floodplain, meaning they benefit from periodic nutrient deposition without facing extreme flood hazard.

 

Combining the FEMA floodplain data and the USDA soil surveys indicates that current land use in the Shenandoah watershed is generally appropriate for local soil conditions. Agriculture occupies the fertile Monongahela loam lowlands, while residential and forested areas are found on the steeper, rockier Weikert–Berks soils. Currently, the floodways remain largely undeveloped or used for agriculture, aligning with mitigation best practices. Strengthening riparian buffers, enforcing floodplain zoning, and improving stormwater management will be essential to sustain agricultural productivity and community resilience as climate change persist and water levels shift (Shenandoah County, 2023).

 

References

Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2024). Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) for Page County, Virginia (Panel 51139C0189C). FEMA Flood Map Service Center. https://msc.fema.gov/

Shenandoah County. (2023). Natural resources chapter of the comprehensive plan. Shenandoah County, Virginia. https://shenandoahcountyva.us/

Soil Science Society of America. (2020). What are alluvial soils? Unique soils provide many beneficial values to society.https://www.soils.org/news/media-releases/releases/2020/0217/1157

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2025). Soil survey of Page County, Virginia. U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2025). Web Soil Survey: Soil data for Page County, Virginia. U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/

United States Geological Survey. (2025). Elevation data for Page County, Virginia. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.usgs.gov/

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation. (2025). Floodplain management regulations. Commonwealth of Virginia. https://www.dcr.virginia.gov/

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation. (2025). Virginia Flood Risk Information System (VFRIS).Commonwealth of Virginia. https://www.dcr.virginia.gov/vfris